Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/333660 
Year of Publication: 
2025
Series/Report no.: 
IZA Discussion Papers No. 18221
Publisher: 
Institute of Labor Economics (IZA), Bonn
Abstract: 
Women remain underrepresented in leadership worldwide. Across politics, business, and community organizations, they face barriers limiting access to leadership roles and influence in decision-making. This paper groups these barriers into opportunity, motivation, and capability, and reviews global evidence on interventions to address them. It assesses the effectiveness of these approaches, how descriptive representation (holding a leadership position) translates into substantive representation (influencing decisions), and unintended consequences. Quotas can increase women's descriptive representation when well designed and enforced. Role model interventions may motivate participation, mainly in politics, though evidence is mixed elsewhere. Training, mentorship, and organizational reforms show context specific results, often supporting career progression rather than leadership attainment. Greater numerical representation does not always yield substantive influence. Outcomes depend on institutional context, gender norms, and complementary support. Advancing women's leadership requires strategies that address multiple barriers and further research on how representation translates into real influence.
Subjects: 
leadership
gender
descriptive representation
substantive representation
quotas
JEL: 
J16
J24
D72
M14
Document Type: 
Working Paper

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